Akuntansi-sistim Amerika;

              Indonesian Accounting
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By HENDRA DARMAWAN/Managing Partner, Darmawan & Co., Jakarta, Indonesia
and DANIEL D O R I A N / Supervisor, TRI, Jakarta
It's not all "debet" and "kredit" when an "akuntan"
computes the "amortisasi" in accordance with "Prinsip-
Prinsip Akuntansi Indonesia." Even the "konsolidasi" or
"kas" (cash) and "bursa" (bourse) still rings with a familiar
tone. It's only when we get to the "laporan keuangan"
(financial statements) and the "aktiva tetap" (fixed assets)
that we come to a realization that somehow Indonesian
accounting and auditing is not directed from Stamford,
New York City, or Washington,D.C.
Three Influences
Indonesian accounting and auditing practices reflect indi­genous,
Dutch, and American influences. The ten basic
Indonesian auditing standards, for example, are almost a
direct translation of the ten basic American standards.
Similarly, Indonesian accounting principles list six key
sources, four of which were published by the AICPA. The
others are Australian and Dutch.
The Dutch influence is based on the colonial era, which
officially ended with independence being declared on
August 17,1945, but in practice continued into the 1950's
and beyond—much as British influence in the United States
carried forward well beyond July 4, 1776. The indigenous
influence, which is the most important, is not the product
of a separate stream of accounting and auditing theory but
is based on an adaptation of borrowed business traditions
to the economic and cultural realities of Indonesia. Due to
these factors, most of the major public accounting firms in
Indonesia have expatriate advisors—from their interna­tional
associates—working with them. With most of these
advisors being Australian, American, or from the Philip­pines,
the so-called "Anglo-Saxon" system is, as a practical
matter, the major external influence on the scene today.
The Indonesian Influence
Another way of evaluating these influences is to categorize
them in terms of time—that is, historical, colonial, and
modern. The historic principles are those time-honored
beliefs imbedded in the cultural habits of Indonesia: the
desire to please, an oriental approach to defining truth, and
respect for position and hierarchies. The colonial concepts
are those surviving from the first prolonged exposure of
Indonesia to European commerce, although many of these
concepts have since been discarded or updated. One
example of a concept which remains, is an emphasis on
accuracy, which shows up in financial statements, bank
statements, and tax assessments carried out to the hun­dredth
of a Rupiah, a unit (U.S. $.0024) which is no longer
circulated. The stress on legal form over substance is
another such concept, although it has since been modified
in western economies. As for modern concepts, they are
readily seen in the direct borrowing of U.S. audit standards,
the existence of computers, and the use of U.S. accounting
textbooks.
Essentially, trying to understand a third world economy
means grasping how the latest in modern technology has
been blended with local cultural patterns and the pre­existing
infrastructure. For example, the pace of change, as
modern ideas impact the existing fabric, is necessarily
uneven. It is at once too fast and too slow, since the slow
pace at which foreign business methods can be fitted into
the existing environment often makes even new ideas out
of date. Finding a successful middle way that does not settle
for a poor copy, but creates a new and better version, is the
main task of technology transfer.
The American Influence
The influence of American accounting in Indonesia be­came
significant in 1958, when Indonesia was having diffi­culties
with the Dutch government and expelled Dutch
nationals from within its borders. The University of Indo­nesia
replaced the Dutch accounting faculty with Ameri­cans,
who brought along their GAAP and GAAS to teach
what they knew best. Although the Americans were gradu­ally
replaced by Indonesian faculty, the American concepts
took hold and grew in influence,sothat by 1973 Indonesian
Prinsip-Prinsip Akuntansi and Norma-Norma Pemeriksaan
(pemeriksaan means "examination") were heavily based
on the American system.
By 1977 most of the major Indonesian universities teach­ing
accounting were following the American system. Ban­ners
posted over streets to advertise private bookkeeping
courses now exclaim "Akuntansi-Sistim Amerika." The
newsletter of the Indonesian Accountants Institute (re­stricted
to registered public accountants) borrows heavily
today from the Journal of Accountancy of the AICPA. Most
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